C.5. Establishing Transfer Pricing Capability in Developing Countries

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C.5. ESTABLISHING TRANSFER PRICING CAPABILITY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

 

C .5 .1 .       Introduction

C.5.1.1.                         This Chapter addresses issues of setting up a dedicated transfer pricing unit in the tax administration. There are important opportunities as well as challenges in setting up such a unit for the first time. The design of such a unit, its vision and mission statements and the measurement of whether it has been successful will have to take into account factors widely recognized to be key features of modern tax administrations. These include factors such as:

Ø the relationship between tax policy and tax administration;

Ø the need to evaluate current capabilities and gaps to be filled;

Ø the need for a clear vision, a mission and a culture that reflects them;

Ø organizational structure;

Ø approaches taken to building team capability;

Ø the need for effective and efficient business processes;

Ø the advantages of staged approaches to reaching long-term goals; and

Ø the need for monitoring to assess effectiveness and for fine tuning.

C.5.1.2.                         These points provide a useful framework when setting up a transfer pricing unit, even though there is no “template” that will be suitable for all countries in every respect. These issues will all need consideration in the context of decisions taken at a wider policy and tax administration level.

 

C .5 .2 .       Relationship between Tax Policy and Tax Administration

C.5.2.1.              The tax policy-making function generally resides with the Ministry of Finance rather than with the tax administration in most jurisdictions. The other revenue generating organs of government (e.g. the Customs Service)123 are also separate from the tax administration in many jurisdictions. There is, however, a particular need to bridge the gap between the policy making function and the tax administration in order to implement an effective transfer pricing regime, particularly due to:

Ø the complexity and resource intensiveness of administering a transfer pricing regime;

Ø the potential costs of compliance for taxpayers and of collection by tax administrations; and

Ø the international dimension given the link to binding tax treaties through provisions based upon Article 9 of the UN and OECD Model Conventions, issues of potential double taxation and the interest of other countries; and the large amounts of money that may be at stake.

C.5.2.2.              An essential first step in improving cooperation is to review and clarify exactly what each agency’s responsibilities and functions are and the mechanisms for contact and coordination. This review should be used to examine the scope for removing duplication and overlap of functions, and for streamlining and consolidating procedures.

C.5.2.3.              Some factors that could improve cooperation include:

Ø recognition of the need to have a “policy feedback loop” so that the policy reasons for a transfer pricing regime are properly reflected in that regime and in its administration, but also that practical lessons from the administration of the regime can be used as feedback in order to fine tune policy. Examples are:

 where aspects of the policy are expensive or otherwise very resource intensive to administer, and the likely revenue return is not commensurate with these costs;

 where a wider treaty framework and strong exchange of information provisions would be beneficial; or where there is a need to ensure that the framework of thresholds, deterrence mechanisms and penalties is effective and up to date; and

 utilizing the experience of the administration in taxpayer service, education and enforcement, and feedback from competent authorities in improving legislation or implementing regulations;

Ø cross-secondment of tax administrators and policy-makers to each other’s teams. This will help ensure that administration officials understand the policy-making process and the objectives of the legislation, and that policy-makers understand the practical issues of tax administration. Good tax policy must be able to be administered and good administration must have sound policy underpinnings;

Ø broader governmental policies to ensure that all investment policies with a tax dimension must have the involvement of the tax administration. For example, tax administrators should be involved in discussions about tax incentive and tax holiday policies that may affect transfer pricing and other aspects of tax administration; and

Ø recognition that policy-makers should not be limited in their training to the economic effects of investment; but tax policy should also be incorporated into the training. Conversely, tax officials should also recognize the importance of investment to development and the importance of, for example, seeking to avoid double taxation in accordance with applicable law.

 

C .5 .3 .       Assessing Current Capabilities and Gaps to be Filled

C.5.3.1.              Different tax administrations require different types of administrative arrangements when it comes to implementing their government’s transfer pricing policies. The level of development/ capability in the tax administration should be a key factor to consider when formulating policies, which is not always the case. In many cases, there is an unrealistic expectation of an increase in capability across too many areas in too short a time.

C.5.3.2.              In addressing the issue of developing transfer pricing capability it is important, first of all, to determine the actual level of existing knowledge and the best organizational approach. The focus in this Manual is on countries with little or no existing experience in transfer pricing, so there are initial start-up issues. There is also a recognition that not everything can be achieved at once and that the system and the administrative capability will need to evolve over time, as part of a capability building plan—what is often termed a “life cycle approach”. A possible approach is outlined below in Figure C.5.1:

Figure C.5.1:



Audit Process

C.5.3.3.           Factors to consider when assessing the level of development/capability of the tax administration include:

Ø levels of education and expertise;

Ø the legal environment or framework (as addressed in Chapter B.8) including the characteristics of the transfer pricing legislation and responsibilities for and the scope of regulations – a clear and transparent legal framework is important to the functioning of the administration as a whole,125 and perhaps especially in a difficult and legally complex area such as transfer pricing;

Ø networks of comprehensive bilateral tax treaties including articles relating to Associated Enterprises (usually Article 9), the Mutual Agreement Procedure (usually Article 25) and Exchange of Information (usually Article 26). Additionally, any more limited Exchange of Information agreements—especially with the countries of residence of key participants in the economy and their related parties;

Ø availability of information within the country/tax administration; and

Ø availability of information technology systems that allow for the most effective strategies to encourage compliance, develop and support audit strategies and facilitate collection and litigation where necessary, as well as those skilled in using them.

 

C .5 .4 .       Developing the Mission, the Vision and the Culture of the Unit

C.5.4.1.     Objectives

C.5.4.1.1.            The goals of the team should be clear, both to team members and to others that they are engaging with. This includes others in the administration and stakeholders such as taxpayers and their advisors. Often this is put in terms of developing a “mission” representing that the unit will do in its daily operations and a “vision” representing what an ideal future will look like when the unit carries out its mission properly. Many tax administrations also have a “Taxpayer’s Charter “which reflects what taxpayers can expect from the administration, and what is expected from them in the relationship.

C.5.4.1.2.            Documents reflecting the mission and the vision should become part of the culture and be “lived out” by the unit on a daily basis rather than merely being framed and put on the wall. This will be assisted by, for example, developing a team charter aligned with the wider organizational charter agreed by senior managers in the unit and key persons in the organization as a whole, preferably after conversations with stakeholders. This could usefully draw upon the experience of other countries though it must be tailored to each country’s own realities. It is of course necessary to keep under review whether the mission and vision are being achieved in practice and, if not, why they are not being achieved.

C.5.4.1.3.            An important part of defining the unit’s objectives involves identifying, and recognizing the limitations of, available resources. Clearly determining what is inside and outside the competence of the unit will help clarify what resources are needed to meet the objectives of the unit and encourage the best use of such resources.

C.5.4.2.         Client/Taxpayer Orientation

C.5.4.2.1.                       A central consideration to be borne in mind is that a transfer pricing unit will have important taxpayer service and education functions as well as a central enforcement function. These functions are interrelated: better education and taxpayer service reduces the cost, resource-intensiveness and “pain” of compliance. This, in turn, helps increase compliance (those wanting to comply find it easier to do so) and allows the administration to focus enforcement measures on the greatest risk areas (in particular, those who have no intention of complying with their obligations).

C.5.4.2.2.                       Understanding the functions and environment of MNEs will most effectively and efficiently further all these service, education and enforcement activities. Handling their taxation issues will inevitably lead to more contacts between MNEs and the unit. For instance, MNEs have to disclose their documentation and systems, while tax administrations have to be aware of the dangers of unnecessarily high administrative burdens, and therefore compliance costs, for MNEs. High compliance costs are inefficient and may unnecessarily give a negative view of a country’s investment climate, deterring potential investors.

C.5.4.2.3.                       On the other hand, increased focus on transfer pricing issues will inevitably lead to some disputes with MNEs and the possibility of double taxation. Another country may regard more of the profits of a transaction between related parties as subject to its tax jurisdiction in accordance with a bilateral treaty; resulting in fewer profits being (in that country’s view) subject to tax in your jurisdiction. This is an increasingly common issue in transfer pricing and tax administrations need to devote resources to avoiding unnecessary differences. They need to ensure, where possible, that those differences do not lead to a dispute and they need to deal with formal dispute resolution procedures as expeditiously and effectively as possible when a dispute cannot be avoided.

C.5.4.2.4.                       Most double tax treaties contain a Mutual Agreement Procedure (MAP) article to try to avoid double taxation, based upon the UN or OECD Model Tax Conventions, as noted in Chapter B.1; see also Chapter C.4, Section C.4.4. Often this is Article 25 in bilateral treaties, as it is in both Models. However, a MAP conducted between competent authorities is very resource-intensive and costly for both tax authorities and MNEs. As such, it is especially worthwhile to put sufficient energy and resources into risk assessment and establishing contact points between the tax administration, the competent authorities under tax treaties and policy-makers to avoid unnecessary adjustments in tax assessments.

C.5.4.2.5.                       Engagement with taxpayers, tax advisors and peak representative bodies is necessary to understand the transfer pricing systems of MNEs, and for the MNEs to understand what is required from them in a newly introduced transfer pricing regime. This will help, in particular, to explore shared interests such as clarity and transparency, as much certainty as possible to understand and reduce the risks of tax positions, awareness of commercial realities, fairness and consistency between taxpayers and reduced costs of compliance and collection.

C.5.4.2.6.                       There is a need for considerable early investment in taxpayer education. The tax administration also needs to ensure professional and effective relationships with taxpayers as an element of taxpayer service. This is an area where the experience of other similarly placed administrations is likely to be especially helpful.

C.5.4.2.7.                       Overall, there needs to be a sustained commitment to this part of the “set up process”, which is designed to maximize compliance and to assist in risk management (by helping differentiate non-compliance due to lack of understanding from more deliberate and therefore systemically risky, non-compliance). A fair amount of institutional patience and sustained commitment is required if the transfer pricing regime is to fully meet its medium to longer term goals.

C.5.4.2.8.                       Some specific steps through which this can be achieved by tax administrators include:

Ø knowing taxpayers and their commercial environment, as well as their main issues and concerns, and having in place a continuous dialogue with taxpayers, tax professionals, their associations or peak representative bodies on tax issues;

Ø being reasonable and proportionate in actions, and open and transparent with taxpayers;

Ø being responsive to requests;

Ø extensive and clear taxpayer education, including making available to taxpayers tax guidance notes, information circulars and other guidance on interpretation of tax laws to avoid misunderstandings, confusion and surprises to those willing to meet their obligations;

Ø an informative and easy to navigate Internet presence that is regularly tested and kept under review for its user-friendliness and relevance;

Ø seeking to avoid disputes arising unnecessarily but also setting up clear and fair systems for addressing such disputes that do not unfairly deter taxpayers from pursuing legitimate grievances; and

Ø advance rulings on specific issues of taxpayers.

C.5.4.2.9.                       Steps that could be encouraged among taxpayers and their advisors include:

Ø being transparent and open about their risks, including by making voluntary disclosures to the tax administration;

Ø requesting and obtaining advance rulings before embarking on activities with important tax consequences, or participating in Advance Pricing Agreements where they exist;126

Ø making their transfer pricing policy available to the tax administration;

Ø recognizing the resource limitations on the side of the administration and not “playing games” to tie up those resources unnecessarily to the disadvantage of the administration and other taxpayers; and

Ø complying with the requirements of the bilateral double taxation treaty between the country they are operating in and their country of residence, and understanding the circumstances when the applicability of the tax treaty to them may be denied.

C.5.4.3.           The Enforcement Approach: RiskBased Approach to Compliance

C.5.4.3.1.            A “risk management” approach to the unit’s work is recommended; this is true for the tax administration as a whole, but particularly when dealing with a new regime involving the complex and resource-intensive issues of transfer pricing. This means having robust processes in place for:

Ø identifying transfer pricing risks;

Ø analyzing them (including ranking them in terms of their likelihood and their impact if they occur); and

Ø determining what can be done to avoid them or to limit their adverse consequences if they cannot be avoided.

The obvious risk is that the right taxpayers do not pay at the right time, but other risks, such as risks to public confidence in the system if taxpayers are not seen as meeting their tax obligations also need to be considered.

C.5.4.3.2.            Ongoing issues of risk assessment and management are considered in more detail in Chapter C.3 of this Manual. In setting up a transfer pricing unit, however, there is an important role for officers attuned to the organization’s approach to risk management and able to implement it systematically for a new area and keep it under review. Consistent risk management strategies will often be developed in conjunction with other areas of the administration, such as those dealing with tax treaties or thin capitalization, or those clustered around relevant industries or in offices that are differentiated based on the size of a taxpayer.

C.5.4.3.3.           As part of this risk management approach, even developed countries with long established transfer pricing regimes and administrations tend in practice to have criteria that define their areas of greatest or least current focus. This often includes thresholds below which they would generally not audit or adjust a controlled transaction for transfer pricing purposes, especially in relation to small and medium sized enterprises or for transactions below certain values.127

C.5.4.3.4.            The criteria referred to above will have to be assessed for each country in the light of its own circumstances, and will have to be kept under review to make sure these criteria are not relied on abusively so that the risk profile has changed. Examples of factors that have often been given special prominence for further investigation by administrations (without of themselves implying any mis-pricing) include situations where the local entity has:

Ø reported losses for a number of years or more, especially if the losses start to accrue close to the time when a “tax holiday” ends;

Ø a high value of related party transactions compared to the taxpayer’s turnover and operating profit;

Ø significant transactions with major counterparts from low-tax or no-tax jurisdictions, non-treaty partners and countries from which information will not be readily available;

Ø an economically unrealistic profit trend compared to industry trends, with no obvious explanation;

Ø inconsistencies between inter-company contracts, transfer pricing policies and detailed transactional documents such as invoices and customs documents; or

Ø significant royalty payments to related parties, especially if the intellectual property is not legally registered or appears to be in some part locally generated.

 

C .5 .5 .   Organizational Structure for the Transfer Pricing Unit

C.5.5.1.              There are two basic types of structure that can be adopted for establishing transfer pricing capability: a centralized model, with a single transfer pricing unit operating across all industries and geographical areas, or a decentralized model, with separate transfer pricing units by industry or geography. Each has advantages and disadvantages, as follows.

C.5.5.2.           Centralized Model

Ø Advantages: coordination and adjustments to the transfer pricing approach are made easier in the start-up phase; knowledge is built up quickly; the model is in tune with a centralizing tendency in tax administrations (driven in part by the desire for all-encompassing technological developments and compliance strategies); there are clearer lines of authority, communication and reporting within the unit; and communications with other areas tend to be more coordinated.

Ø                       Disadvantages: there is a risk of being in an “ivory tower”— out of touch with realities on the ground; and a risk that over-centralization may reduce transparency and create opportunities for mismanagement and corruption. As transfer pricing experts will need, in any case, to work with experts from outside that group, such as people with various auditing skills, and more general tax auditors with some transfer pricing experience, it is at the very least important to guard against such an “ivory tower” mentality (and against being perceived as such) and ensure frequent interactions and exchanges of ideas and even personnel between such groups.

C.5.5.3.           Decentralized Model

Ø Advantages: there are shorter lines of communication with tax inspectors; an easy diffusion of knowledge; combined industry and transfer pricing knowledge; and the model facilitates a long-term broader dissemination of transfer pricing awareness.

Ø Disadvantages: there are risks that team members will not see their first loyalty as being to the transfer pricing unit but instead to the colleagues they most regularly work with, especially in the start-up phase of a multi-disciplinary, cross-functional team, with the danger of a lack of a single vision and coordination. Such coordination problems may lead to inconsistencies, lack of experience sharing and issues “falling between gaps”; and some taxpayers may take advantage of a lack of coordination by, for example, “picking and choosing” who they approach for rulings.

C.5.5.4.              Whatever model is followed, it is important to have a clear and coordinated approach to transfer pricing issues and their possible solutions, especially as MNEs will generally be far more familiar with transfer pricing issues than individual tax officers in a start-up unit. It is impossible to immediately bring the tax administration to a high level of knowledge in all relevant areas, especially when having to deal with many different industries. Measures need to be put in place to ensure good working relations with tax officials who are experts in particular industries, and tax officials in the various regions where transfer pricing issues may arise, including by regular meetings and formal “contact” points on both sides. This will help ensure the best realistic capability is achieved as soon as possible in terms of educating taxpayers and the administration on transfer pricing; responding to taxpayer requests; identifying compliance issues and their links to other tax issues; and addressing those issues.

C.5.5.5.             It is very important to bear in mind the taxpayer service aspect of the work: the taxpayer should be able to go to a “one-stop” contact point to deal with all issues relating to transfer pricing. That contact point should in turn be responsible for the internal coordination, rather than the taxpayer in effect being forced to act as coordinating agent for the administration. This also helps to promote broader consistency and coherence within the administration.

C.5.5.6.              The benefit of a “one stop” contact point is also one reason why many administrations have Large Taxpayer Offices (LTOs), often with specific industry contact points, to handle relationships with MNEs and other large taxpayers especially in key sectors of the economy such as resource extraction. These offices can respond in an integrated fashion to diverse issues across different subject areas (for example: income tax, VAT and resource royalties) as well as issues of particular importance for some taxpayers such as transfer pricing and thin capitalization. They usually have auditing, registration, tax accounting, collection and taxpayer service roles and are sometimes seen as especially useful when implementing new approaches, including major policy or administrative reforms such as self-assessment or computer modernization of the tax office as an “incubator” for change elsewhere.

C.5.5.7.              In a monitoring and intelligence gathering sense, this sort of structural approach can also enable more proactive analysis and action to deal quickly with emerging issues, such as unexpected falls in revenue from key industries or segments. Such falls may merely reflect economic conditions but could, alternatively, reflect new compliance risks, such as a rise in “treaty shopping”. Finally, reform of the administration as a whole may be a long term project, because of a systemic need for skill development or integrity issues that need to be remedied. For example, it is sometimes considered that assembling a well-functioning, trusted and skilled Large Taxpayer Office is the quickest way of safeguarding and monitoring key sectors of revenue while preserving relationships with taxpayers. This experience may also provide lessons that can be applied to the reform of the administration more generally.

C.5.5.8.              Many countries adopt a highly centralized model for their transfer pricing unit at start-up. This reflects the importance of coordination and uniform approaches at that time; it also recognizes that a transfer pricing unit is not designed to have a specific lifespan but rather will become a permanent part of the tax administration’s structure. Several models can be used to take transfer pricing capability further after this start-up phase. It is possible to create teams for every region that can exclusively deal with transfer pricing cases, for example. National coordination is then achieved by placing team members from each region on a rotation basis to work together and discuss the latest developments in transfer pricing.

C.5.5.9.              Another model is to make all corporate income tax inspectors responsible for all transfer pricing cases. In that case it is sensible to appoint some regional focal points which have to be aware of all major issues and are responsible for contacting and informing policy makers.

C.5.5.10.            As noted above, some countries also have a separate office dealing with MNEs because of their specific characteristics, their relevance in terms of investment and the tax revenue they may generate and the related tax issues that are of special importance. Such an office can be organized on a national level or within the regions, depending on the number of MNEs that are active in the country. As noted above, this unit should as far as possible act as a central contact point (or “one-stop shop”) for responses on MNE issues and it will therefore need to contain transfer pricing expertise or at the very least work especially closely with the transfer pricing unit.

 

C .5 .6 . Building Team Capability

C.5.6.1.         General Human Resource Management Issues

C.5.6.1.1.       A new transfer pricing regime is probably itself related to major changes within a tax administration, such as recognition of the impact of globalization and international value chains on the particular country. As with most changes there are potential advantages and disadvantages. While the human resources management strategy for the unit needs to be integrated with the organization’s wider human resources strategy, there are aspects that are likely to be of particular relevance in this area, including the importance of:

Ø the unit’s “culture”, focusing on achieving the organizational vision, mission, and objectives; motivating and providing incentives for performance; measurable goal setting; and mutually agreed and annually updated performance objectives and standards. In a new team, possibly with some reluctant but very capable members, the importance of this work and of good team leaders should not be underestimated;

Ø broadly-trained officers who understand the importance of investment for a country’s development (including the importance of avoiding double taxation) and understand the drivers and environment of business, yet believe not only in the crucial importance of collecting the country’s appropriate tax take but also in the necessity of public confidence in the integrity of the system and in their actions as tax officials;

Ø internationally focused officers (including those familiar with the languages most used by international business) who meet routine business needs but are proactive, creative and adaptive to new ideas and challenges, seeing change as an opportunity;

Ø officers who are keen to develop and to explore the most efficient and effective ways of doing their work and are patient in dealing with the large demands, complexity and often slow progress of transfer pricing cases rather than seeking to “cut corners”;

Ø a strategy for the identification and development of managers who are respected, have integrity and can motivate staff and help them share the vision of the unit and the organization;

Ø recognizing that not all will want to be, or be suitable as, managers. A strategy for recruiting and retaining technical leaders will also be necessary, as well as ensuring that their expertise is shared amongst their colleagues. This strategy can be furthered by discussions, rulings, meeting clients in teams and forming a database of experience—not to be used blindly, but to encourage ways of analyzing and reaching conclusions; and

Ø clear career prospects and incentives (such as learning opportunities and secondments) for successful officers, based on performance assessments that are fair and based on objective criteria reflecting the objectives of the unit. This means that excellent taxpayer service should be rewarded, not merely activity that appears to be more directly revenue generating. In particular, there are clear dangers in incentives based mainly or wholly on the level of adjustments made, as this can encourage unjustified adjustments. In any case, it may take years to establish whether an adjustment was justified or not, perhaps long after the officer has moved on. Such unjustified adjustments are, in fact, counterproductive to the success of the unit in establishing confidence in the system and providing taxpayer service.

C.5.6.1.2.       Practice has shown two particular human resources-related risks at this stage. First, there is the possibility of resentment against those involved with transfer pricing policy and administration by others in more “established” areas. Because it is new, people within the organization do not always know exactly what it is about and feel uncertain and can be unwilling or dismissive about taking up transfer pricing issues. Further, setting up such a transfer pricing unit may require the recruitment of outside expertise in key roles. Existing staff may feel it is a “fashionable” area of work that draws resources and support away from their own equally important areas of work, or unduly rewards “outsiders” and “upstarts” who have not “paid their dues”. The interrelationship and equal importance of different aspects of the organization’s mission and vision need to be emphasized and “buy-in” established with other parts of the organization. However, it has to be stressed that building up capability in this area will involve new approaches and bringing in some fresh perspectives and new skill-sets. The unit should not have a sense of superiority as part of its culture, but rather a sense of the importance of its work and of the opportunities to pursue broader organizational goals while furthering personal development.

C.5.6.1.3.      The link can be established between an effective transfer pricing response and a more effective response by the organization  to more general tax issues; and efforts can be made to have transfer pricing information and training sessions for officers elsewhere in the organization. This can reduce any impression that transfer pricing is a “black box” known only to members of the transfer pricing unit (or, even more importantly, that the unit and individual unit officers want to keep it that way) and can emphasize natural linkages to the other work of the administration, such as thin capitalization or treaty negotiation and administration. Conversely training in how particular industries operate, especially ones that are especially large in a country, proportionate to other industries (such as mining, oil & gas, or telecommunications in many countries) will greatly help increase the effectiveness and focus of transfer pricing experts.


C.5.6.1.4.       There is, on the other hand, a risk that employees from the tax administration will become overly enthusiastic about transfer pricing as a “panacea”—a solution to all problems— and may, accordingly, propose unjustified or disproportionate tax adjustments leading to time consuming litigation and MAP proceedings. It is often stated that transfer pricing is not an exact science, and there is a broad range of possibilities to discuss and adjust tax returns. That inexact quality can be abused by authorities as well as by taxpayers. It is thus important to manage this process, and ensure that any proposed transfer pricing adjustment is justified on purely transfer pricing grounds; it  is also important to show that the discretion implicit in such an inexact situation is properly exercised. This involves integrity issues and it is important that decisions taken having major financial impact are appropriately checked and “signed off” in a way that not only ensures (as far as possible) that they are made for the right reasons and consistently with the treatment of other taxpayers, but that they are also seen as doing so.

C.5.6.2.                  Competences/Skill Sets Needed by the Unit: Putting Together the Best Team

C.5.6.2.1.   Recognizing the many aspects of transfer pricing and that the unit will have educative and taxpayer service functions as well as an enforcement role, a transfer pricing unit should ideally include, or have ready access to, the following skillsets:

Ø team and project managers—people with demonstrated ability to put together new teams, whether or not they have specific transfer pricing expertise;

Ø economists;

Ø lawyers;

Ø accountants;

Ø auditors;

Ø database experts;

Ø business process experts (using information technology to evaluate, automate, integrate, monitor and help improve business processes); and

Ø those with special public relations and communication skills, including the ability to: listen actively and effectively, solve problems, explain complex issues in terms that are readily understandable and act “diplomatically” with a view to longer-term productive relationships. The increasing scrutiny of transfer pricing policy and administration in most countries makes this especially important.

C.5.6.2.2.  These various skillsets should be bound together not just by technical knowledge and willingness to learn, but also by a common identification with the unit and wider administration’s objectives and ways of doing business. In addition, a deep understanding of what drives business and how it organizes itself to meet its own objectives needs to be internalized in the unit’s work. Having regular access to such skills is the ideal situation of course, and many countries with fairly new transfer pricing regimes have of necessity focussed initially on legal, economic, accounting, audit and database skills.

C.5.6.2.3.   Dealing with MNEs demands specific characteristics and competences. Transfer pricing is about how business operates and the operation of complex, somewhat “fuzzy”, tax laws. Knowledge of international taxation and good judgement is required to select the right areas to focus on and the right cases for an audit, as some transactions are more tax-driven than others. The ability to interpret information, and to sort the relevant from the irrelevant is becoming ever more important as the opportunities to obtain information from other tax administrations and from MNEs themselves increases. Having information available but being unable to properly interpret it may put an administration in a worse position, especially before the courts, than if it never had access to the necessary information.

C.5.6.2.4.   Staff with a background in accounting have often been regarded as easy to train in transfer pricing as they are often enthusiastic about specializing in this field, but similar enthusiasm can be found in those with other skill sets. Others, such as lawyers and economists have special skills in dealing with the often complex law and economics of transfer pricing cases, and one of the challenges in this area is having all those skills working together effectively.

C.5.6.2.5.   At the initial stages, specific transfer pricing expertise may not be generally available in the country (or at least within the administration) and will in large part have to be developed. At a later stage expertise from outside may be encouraged to join the tax administration by job gradings that reflect the scarcity of skills and good salaries – perhaps higher than usual salaries, although that can create resentment among other staff. Other non-financial incentives may be important, such as the ability to work on the governmental “side”, perhaps with greater policy or legislative exposure and improved lifestyle (by creating a more balanced work environment for those with children, for example). Developed countries may be willing to place one of their experts in a developing country as a component of Official Development Assistance (ODA) or to sponsor a promising officer from a developing country in a placement within their administration.

C.5.6.2.6.  In one study the value was noted of having embedded experts seconded from other countries (sometimes the same official a few times each year) who have confronted similar problems and developed pragmatic approaches to deal with them.130 It was noted that such experts can share their experience and give auditors, for example, more confidence in demanding information from taxpayers.131

C.5.6.2.7.   A key challenge of working closely with taxpayers is that many of the best trained experts from the tax administration are likely to eventually leave to join the private sector. This will have an effect on individual cases as well as on the operation of the unit more generally. As noted in more detail below, a system designed to capture and spread knowledge of transfer pricing issues within the unit, which includes team involvement, effective management and regular review of cases, will help to minimize the effects of these departures, as will an effective system of recording and filing relevant transfer pricing opinions and material relating to particular cases. In any case, such interplay  of “cultures” between the administration and the business sector over time can be useful for each of these entities; it helps each to understand what drives the other and what the expectations are.

C.5.6.2.8.   In addition to technical expertise, “soft skills” are also important for officers to perform their duties. Negotiation and communication skills are essential since transfer pricing demands a great deal of interaction with MNEs. There is always a range of possible outcomes in transfer pricing and room for discussion. Skills that help make these discussions as professional and effective as possible are an important component of a successful transfer pricing unit.

C.5.6.2.9.   Integrity issues may arise from the close contacts between business and the tax administration and the large amounts of money often at stake, as well as the fact that transfer pricing analysis often gives a range of results rather than a single clear answer. This can be exacerbated by a trend of many tax officials engaged in transfer pricing issues later moving to the private sector. The best way to deal with these issues is by having discussions with MNEs in teams, and ensuring that records are kept of those discussions. The records should be internally reviewable to ensure that the proper policies and practices have been followed and to make sure a consistent approach has been adopted between taxpayers. This helps to ensure that working arrangements are transparent, open and incorporate built-in checks and balances that will reduce the risk of temptation on both sides. It is also important to recognize that officers should be given protection from false accusations against their integrity, which may reduce their willingness to approach each case fairly and impartially. The checks and balances should be designed to support officers acting properly and maintain the effectiveness of the unit. A way for officers to bring issues of integrity to management attention through secure channels that will act on such intelligence without punishing the whistle-blower and discouraging such behaviour in future should also be considered.

C.5.6.2.10. Regular internal audits of the members of the unit can form part of the system of checks and balances. These audits could include reviews of quality, consistency and timeliness of decisions as well as, possibly, of personal assets of individual officers (such as by declarations of assets and interests and checks as to their accuracy). If resources allow, some form of double-checking of audits including rotation of fresh auditors into such roles can prove to be useful in this respect.

C.5.6.2.11. A review process of important cases by a formal panel or informal reviews by a senior group is suggested as a way towards achieving coherence, adherence to administration rulings, integrity, sound technical standards and effective case management. This can also, to some extent, form part of the on-the-job training. Those undertaking the review should ideally comprise not just officers from the unit, but also from other relevant areas. The group could include officers dealing with the type of business or industry (such as officers from the Large Taxpayer Office if it is separate), intelligence officers, officers from the economic unit (if there is a separate pool of economists working on transfer pricing issues but not part of the trans fer pricing unit— an issue discussed below) tax treaty experts and those dealing with potentially related areas, such as thin capitalization. This need for checks and balances is likely to assume even greater importance in coming years, with greater scrutiny of transfer pricing issues by civil society and parliaments likely in most countries over the coming years.132 The role of non-government organizations in pressing for country-by-country reporting as an outcome in the OECD/G20 BEPS project is just one instance of this new reality.

C.5.6.2.12. A well-functioning transfer pricing unit needs both legal and economic expertise and it is not purely one or the other. Transfer pricing knowledge is about pricing, economic rationale, market knowledge and business and industry knowledge. It is, however, also important to understand international taxation issues and the tax rationale underlying relevant transactions.

C.5.6.2.13. There are sometimes questions as to whether a group with a specific professional specialization, such as economists, should be distributed within other teams or should comprise, at least in the start-up phase, a separate unit. Some of the same issues arise as in the set-up of a transfer pricing unit as a whole. The advantages of distributing economic expertise more broadly (as an example) are that economic issues are treated as just one aspect of the transfer pricing regime. As such, economics expertise is spread more broadly within the tax administration, and the economic perspectives are more easily integrated into the work of multidisciplinary teams.

C.5.6.2.14. The advantages of a separate pool of economists, on the other hand, are that greater “quality control” can be exerted, especially in the start-up phase, over the consistency of economic analyzes. Further, economists in a new area can discuss new issues and learn from each other more easily. As with any specialist skill, having economists working in groups at the start-up phase may also be seen as promoting integrity and an “aligned” and consistent approach to the issues that arise.

C.5.6.2.15. Whichever approach is adopted, efforts will need to be put in place to ensure sufficient linkages and knowledge exchange between the “pool” of economists and their fellow economists in other areas, as well as other officials that will be part of multi-disciplinary transfer pricing teams.

C.5.6.3.         Training

C.5.6.3.1.            In some countries the educational system provides a steady supply of accountants, auditors, economists and lawyers from which the tax administration can draw. In other countries the situation is more difficult either because the formal educational system does not produce enough qualified graduates or because there is more competition, especially on salaries, from the private sector. This will affect the type of training required and it is of the utmost importance to assess the knowledge, capabilities and competencies of officers.

C.5.6.3.2.            In developing what might be called a “learning plan” for the unit and its individual officers, it is recommended to first develop an assessment of the existing capabilities. This cannot be done without a context, and that context must be the short, medium and longer term objectives of the unit, so it is essentially a “gap assessment”. Such an assessment considers what needs to be done to go from the current capability to the desired future capability. It will address how to achieve the objectives at various stages of the life of the unit and under various scenarios.

C.5.6.3.3.            This assessment should be followed by setting up a training programme to operationalize its recommendations. For a start it is good to first have a group of experts with accountancy and legal backgrounds. The pioneer group to be trained should consist of senior tax officials from the administration (and preferably also from the policy making area). They are the pioneers and champions who should instill awareness in their colleagues of the importance of a transfer pricing capability. They will organize lectures and in-house seminars to train those officials who will become the next group of experts and to increase their skills and knowledge.

C.5.6.3.4.            Specialist courses will be an important aspect of the training programme. As transfer pricing is a highly specialized expertise, in-country training from international experts and perhaps some training of experts overseas will be needed, with a plan to ensure they disseminate their new learning more broadly upon return (such as adopting a train-the-trainer approach). As with any training, it needs to be demand-driven, to respond to the needs of the transfer pricing unit, to speak to their current level of understanding and take it forward, and ensure commitment. Demand-driven training also requires that those demanding the training are made aware of such opportunities for improving their capabilities and performance (as well as job satisfaction) by undertaking targeted training. International development agencies, regional tax administration groupings, international organizations and training institutions may be willing to assist with this. Identifying opportunities and how to most effectively request such assistance is expected to be dealt with in a future appendix to this Manual.

C.5.6.3.5.            The next step is to extend this transfer pricing knowledge and expertise to the rest of the organization. A possible model is to train several employees, who are given the appropriate level of authority, in each region with the right skills and make them responsible for further training as well as operational activities. However, the disadvantage is that other tax officials may resent this group, especially if they are given financial and non-financial incentives, as sometimes happens. In this initial period, it is expected that only a few cases will be dealt with; but transfer pricing experience is nonetheless being developed. These specialists should meet with policy makers to share the latest developments and discuss what is happening in other countries. The policy makers will see what the major issues are and have early warning of issues on the horizon that may need swift but considered policy responses.

 

C.5.6.3.6.            In the meantime, the same approach can be adopted to train the next generation of specialists. The ultimate aim is that all corporate income tax specialists are able to handle at least some aspects of transfer pricing cases. Before that is achieved, as large as possible a group of those dealing with MNEs need to be able to at least identify cases where there is a transfer pricing issue, for further consideration by specialist transfer pricing experts. Even though they may not know all the answers, they will be able to identify issues and will know where to go to find the answers. Additionally, their involvement in this process will help enhance their knowledge.

C.5.6.3.7.            Training should not be merely on transfer pricing issues, of course, as expertise in how a particular industry operates, including the value chains it utilizes, can be especially important if a transfer pricing expert operates predominantly in relation to that industry.134 Training in management, negotiation and inter-personal/relationship building skills will also be very important. So too will be knowledge management, project planning, database and other IT skills. Ethics training can be helpful in ensuring that officers are aware of ethical considerations in their new role as well as more formal legal rules of conduct, and of the way in which these interact (especially as to the exercise of discretion).

C.5.6.4.     Research Materials/Databases

C.5.6.4.1.                       The unit should have access to basic transfer pricing books and, if finances allow, a subscription to a dedicated transfer pricing journal dealing with current issues of interest to countries. As noted elsewhere in this Manual, databases are used by administrations, taxpayers and their advisers when searching for and evaluating possible comparables. They can be used to analyze materials such as:

Ø company annual reports;

Ø auditor’s reports;

Ø profit and loss accounts;

Ø notes to the accounts;

Ø balance sheets;

Ø materials indicating the nature of related party transactions;

Ø materials indicating the nature of the business; and

Ø materials indicating profit margins.

C.5.6.4.2.                       Such databases can provide access to private company data not on the public record, as well as public company data. They can also be helpful in systematizing how the data is used, in keeping a record of what is looked at, who has looked at it, and what decisions have been taken, in serving as a way of ensuring documents are readily accessible and searchable, in providing regular backups, and in providing a help-desk function that may have an educative role.

C.5.6.4.3.                       Private databases tend to be expensive, although sometimes an introductory price can be negotiated that is much lower than the usual pricing. It cannot of course be presumed that the low price will always be offered. One caution is that relevant data are not available for many developing countries, and the relevance of databases based on other markets and environments has to be carefully considered— adjusting the data to be more relevant to your cases may itself be very resource-intensive. That issue is addressed in more detail in Chapter B.2 on Comparability Analysis.

C.5.6.4.     4. Transfer pricing resources of all types tend to be expensive, and there should be a budget line for such materials in any proposal seeking donor assistance for setting up a transfer pricing regime. The IMF/OECD/UN/World Bank Toolkit for Developing Countries on Addressing Difficulties in Accessing Comparables Data for Transfer Pricing Analysis addresses some of the issues involved in the use of databases, especially in adjusting comparables from other markets, and some of the skillsets needed.135

C.5.6.5.     Information Strategies

C.5.6.5.1.                       The unit will need to have access to the necessary information technology hardware and software to enable them to deal with the complexity and volume of transfer pricing-related information, with necessary security measures in view of the commercially sensitive taxpayer information that will be held.

C.5.6.5.2.                       Information strategies will be needed to deal with such technology and the way information is held. Taxpayer files need to be held securely but centrally, so that it is clear what has been requested of taxpayers and when, as well as what has been received and when. It should also be clear when materials have been accessed and by whom among the authorized persons, as well as whether information has been downloaded. A data back-up policy will be needed, with measures to ensure that no data are lost if there is a corrupted or lost back-up (such as duplicate backups held in different locations, with the immediately previous backups being retained also). It is important that documents are not lost or destroyed and that the large volume of paperwork that is a characteristic of transfer pricing cases is not overwhelming, but is securely held. The possibility of litigation on transfer pricing issues must always be borne in mind, even though it should be seen by both sides as a last resort.

C.5.6.5.3.                       Some countries require material to be provided in electronic form, and others require or encourage an index system for the documents provided and a description of the record-keeping system used. If such information is electronically searchable then, subject to the availability of the necessary software and skills, there are potentially great resource savings in dealing with often very large files, speedier response times, and less chance of information being lost. The cost to taxpayers of providing material in certain forms should always be considered in deciding what should be required under relevant legislation or regulations

 

C .5 .7 .       Effective and Efficient Business Processes

C.5.7.1.              Streamlining and simplification of procedures is part of tax administration reform to reduce compliance costs for taxpayers as well as collection costs for administrations. Any such processes being considered in a country should be internalized as part of setting up any transfer pricing capability. This is especially the case because overcomplicated procedures can lead to more informal processes, short-cuts or discretions being used with no legal basis and/or with inconsistency in application between taxpayers. They thus create a severe risk to the integrity of the system as well as increasing compliance and collection costs.

C.5.7.2.              A useful approach is to consider what other administrations do in similar circumstances, especially administrations in the same region, and to follow that guidance unless there are reasons why such guidance is not appropriate after a close examination of the options and the engagement of stakeholders. This approach of looking to what is being done elsewhere as a first point of reference will reduce compliance costs for taxpayers and contribute to a positive investment climate without impacting on the ability to deal with enforcement issues. In fact, it should enhance that ability, as the user can draw upon the practice of other administrations and probably deal with those administrations more effectively because of common starting points.

C.5.7.3.              There will generally be discretions provided in the legislation or regulations of the transfer pricing regime in any case. Such discretions represent a trade-off between a flexible system that takes account of particular circumstances and recognizes the inherent scope for differences in transfer pricing analysis, on the one hand, and the risk that discretion will be exercised inconsistently across similar cases (thus favouring one taxpayer over another) or may raise integrity issues, on the other. Clear guidance for the exercise of discretions and a system of overseeing how they are exercised in practice will be needed.

C.5.7.4.              Owing to the amounts of money at stake in many transfer pricing cases, and perhaps the fact that government transfer pricing experts often eventually leave for the private sector, strong checks and balances are required when decisions are made affecting taxpayer liabilities to tax. On the reverse side, it needs to be clear that the unit is not anti-business, but recognizes the way business inherently operates, the need to follow the law, as well as the need to recognize the duty to provide service to taxpayers and exercise strong enforcement approaches only where warranted and on a fair basis.

 

C .5 .8 .       Application of the Above Considerations in Implementing a Transfer Pricing

Unit and Enhancing Capability

C.5.8.1.                      Drawing upon the factors discussed above, the start-up phase of transfer pricing operations requires:

Ø a critical look at the availability of human resources within the tax administration. Prioritization is essential and choices have to be made concerning the attention to be given to different kinds of taxes. A policy on transfer pricing without sufficient resources being available to the tax administration implementing it “on the ground” will not achieve its objective;

Ø definition of the country’s industrial characteristics. It will be useful to look for statistics on trading volumes and other indicators for cross-border transactions. In a start-up phase many countries focus on their main industries (such as mining, pharmaceuticals, telecommunications, breweries and automobiles), and usually on the larger players in the industry in particular;

Ø good, professional relations with business. Acceptance and understanding of the policy will reduce compliance and collection costs. Meetings with all stakeholders will help in effectively building and improving transfer pricing policy and capability. This also means less non-compliance is likely to be due to honest misunderstandings of the regime’s requirements, and that there is more current intelligence on existing and emerging issues. This allows more focussed and efficient guidance and enforcement action;

Ø understanding what other countries have done at a similar stage, what they are doing now and where that represents an evolution. This can include:

 inviting representatives from other countries with a history of transfer pricing to give their views and share their experiences;

 reciprocal placements with countries that offer useful experience and are willing to assist can be an excellent way to learn. It will be necessary to first prepare a clear plan of what knowledge is being sought, why the other country willing to host a visit is the right country to learn from, and the expected impact and flow-on effects; and

seeking support from donors to arrange visits to such countries, with rigorous and strategic selection of participants, a strong work programme and an obligation to report on the outcomes and lessons learned. All this will help to ensure that a visit is not perceived, including by the other country or potential donors, as a “holiday” for participants. This can have important additional benefits in personnel management as those who are most open to learning new things and are judged likely to stay with the organization for some time and take transfer pricing technical or managerial leadership roles may be offered such exposure;

Ø An ability to define, with policy makers and administrators involved in the process, the important areas of focus bearing in mind:

h the main characteristics of the country’s industries, e.g. manufacturers or distribution activities;

 the main kinds of cases contained in the workload of the tax administration;

 the main types of activities to start with in developing policies, recognizing the need for policy to be soundly based in reality; and

 practical case studies that can provide input for policymaking and a focus for discussing administration issues.

C.5.8.2.          After starting the transfer pricing unit, areas of focus will evolve depending on factors including the stage of development of the transfer pricing policy and the administration. In the first years it is often considered helpful to focus on less complicated activities such as contract manufacturing, intra-group services, etc. When a higher level of experience is reached, the focus will often shift to more complicated areas such as intangibles and business restructurings. The same journey has been undertaken by developed countries. However, this does not mean that particularly blatant examples of mis-pricing in these more complicated areas should not be addressed at an early stage.

C.5.8.3.         Assessing Effectiveness and Fine Tuning

C.5.8.3.1.            It is best to set up a system of monitoring based on a performance measurement framework that establishes key performance indicators and outputs. While it is important not to overload staff, who will undoubtedly be very stretched for time and resources, with too much paperwork, possible areas of monitoring (some by raw data, some by questionnaires and interviews) include:

Ø the time schedules involved in transfer pricing disputes;

Ø yield from risk-based audits and the percentage of yielding audits;

Ø adjustments in tax assessment;

Ø ability to respond quickly to emerging issues—including measurable deterrent effects on taxpayer behaviours;

Ø the number of Mutual Agreement Procedures (MAP);

Ø effectiveness of education campaigns and ongoing contact with business groups and their advisers, as well as evidence such as increasing traffic to the website;

Ø percentage of correspondence and telephone calls dealt with according to previously established customer service standards;

Ø total administration costs of the unit as a percentage of gross collection;

Ø improvements made to process, as well as legislative improvements that have arisen out of the areas of work;

Ø training undertaken and given, and the measurable impact; and

Ø evidence of sharing best practice with other government departments and other tax authorities as part of a continuous improvement strategy.

C.5.8.3.2.            As with any such measurement process, if data that is collected is not being used by management to assess progress the reasons should be considered and the data requirements modified or the use of the data improved. In other words, the process of review should itself be reviewed for effectiveness on a regular basis.

 

C .5 .9 .      Country Examples of Capacity Building in Transfer Pricing

C.5.9.1.              Japan started its transfer pricing administration with a small unit in the late 1980s. Once the National Tax Agency (NTA) identified the rapidly increasing needs for transfer pricing management it expanded a nationwide training course for international taxation step-by-step, now reaching approximately 100 trainees every year; and also reorganized and gradually expanded the national and regional examination division. Currently the headquarters has transfer pricing sections and the MAP office, while the four major regional bureaus have special divisions for transfer pricing (including two divisions specializing in APAs). Although some essential documentation concerning transfer pricing is required by statute to be translated into Japanese, transfer pricing specialists are generally equipped with sufficient language skills to conduct examinations of the original accounting books, documents, etc. in English.

C.5.9.2.              In India capacity building has taken place mainly through on-the-job-training. The Directorate of Transfer Pricing has expanded given that the numbers of cases being referred for audit are increasing annually since 2004, when the Directorate was set up. The National Academy of Direct Taxes, the apex body responsible for training, has been conducting specialized training for officers. The Directorate has organized seminars and conferences for experience sharing by officers engaged in audit and for capacity building of officers joining the Directorate.

C.5.9.3.              In Malaysia, the Inland Revenue Board Malaysia (IRBM) responded to the rise in issues pertaining to cross-border related party transactions in audit and investigation cases by setting up the transfer pricing audit unit, known as the Special Audit Unit, on 1 August 2003.

C.5.9.3.1.                       The unit began operations with five officers based in the IRBM headquarters, reporting to the Director of the Compliance Department. From 2004 to 2009 IRBM also had two auditors based in each of the Penang and Johor state offices to deal with transfer pricing cases with the assistance of the Special Audit Unit. By 2007, transfer pricing cases had become increasingly challenging and the Special Audit Unit had grown to twelve; however, it was found that transfer pricing issues were still being taken up by other branches resulting in lack of uniformity in the methods used to settle cases. IRBM then decided that transfer pricing audit activity needed to be centralized in order to increase officers’ expertise as well as to ensure a standardized approach.

C.5.9.3.2.                       The IRBM Multinational Tax Department came into existence with the introduction of transfer pricing regulations under Section 140A and Section 138C of the Income Tax Act 1967 which came into effect on 1 January 2009. In 2008, measures towards centralizing transfer pricing activities were proposed and eventually came into force on 1 March 2009 when the unit became separated from the Compliance Department into a full department of its own. The Multinational Tax Department, headed by a senior director, now reports directly to the Deputy Director General of Compliance. The department is still relatively small, as the intention behind the set-up is to build expertise in a small group who will later be dispersed to provide assistance and knowledge to other branches within IRBM. In general, the Department has four divisions as follows, with individual division directors:

Ø Policy Division (one auditor), responsible for matters pertaining to regulations and procedures;

Ø Multinational Audit Division (eight auditors), which conducts audit visits;

Ø Compliance Audit Division (four auditors), which monitors compliance of cases previously audited; and

Ø Advance Pricing Arrangements Division (one auditor) which deals with the application and processing of APAs including bilateral and multilateral APAs.

C.5.9.3.3.                       Auditors were sent to various training events both inside and outside Malaysia from the initial set up of the Special Audit Unit. The Department continues to send auditors to various courses to increase knowledge and expertise in transfer pricing issues, as well as having the opportunity to share their own knowledge and experience within the transfer pricing community more generally.

 

 






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